What
is Jade?
Types
of Jade
What
is Jade used for?
Where
is Jade found?
How
the Jade trade in Jadeite is conducted today?
How
the miners distinguish the good from the bad
The
Power of Jade
Why
Jade Jewellery from Jadeite?
The
History of Jade and Jade Jewellery
The
History of Jade (Jadeite)
W.
Griffiths, 1847 - Journals of Travels in Assam and
Beyond
What
is Jade?
Often
known as the "Stone
of Heaven".
The
best Jade Jadeite know as ( Imperial Jade ) is
the most valuable Gemstone on earth and is most highly
regarded for the manufacture of
fine Jade Jewellery.
Jade (Jadeite) now most commonly used for the
manufacture of Jade Jewellery.
Specific
Gravity |
Jadeite
normal 3.34 (3.30-3.38) |
Refractive
Index |
Jadeite
1.66 |
Chemical
Composition |
Jadeite:
Na Al(SiO3)2
silicate of sodium and aluminum |
Crystal
Structure |
Monoclinic
Jadeite granular fibrous crystalline aggregate |
Specific
Gravity |
Jadeite
normal 3.34 (3.30-3.38) |
Specific
Gravity |
Jadeite
normal 3.34 (3.30-3.38) |
Refractive
Index |
Jadeite
1.66 |
Birefringence |
Jadeite
.020
(not usually measurable on cut stones) |
Dispersion |
None |
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It
was a French
mineralogist
called Alexis Damour in 1863 who first discovered the
difference between Jadeite & Nephrite. He named the
new Jade Jadeite, that is where the term Old Jade comes
from meaning the original Chinese Nephrite. So these
days Jade is a collective name for both Jadeite and
Nephrite.
Testing
Jade
Mohs
Hardness test
This
is the most important test for Jadeite that is between
6.0 and 7.0. The hardest stone on earth is Diamond at
10. A good quality steel blade can be used as a rough
test this has a hardness of 5.5 so if you can scratch
your Jade with this it's not Jade at all.
Specific
gravity test
Jadeite
is a dense stone with a SG of 3.43. This test is
achieved by placing the stone in a heavy liquid to see
if it floats or sinks etc, it's a particularly horrible
practice as apart from the fact that the liquid used
stinks it's also very poisonous so grate care must be
taken afterwards to wash your hands carefully. This is
the way to sort out the B jade as it's commonly know as
because this is filled with a less dense resin it will
float. Unless you are testing a piece of Imperial Jade
this is just about it. As Imperial Jade is the most
expensive gemstone on earth I suggest you leave it to
the laborites.
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Chinese
Jade (Nephrite)
Specific
Gravity |
Nephrite
normal 2.95 (2.90-3.00) |
Refractive
Index |
Nephrite
1.606-1.632 |
Chemical
Composition |
Nephrite:
Ca Mg5(OH)2(Si4O11)2
silicate of calcium and magnesium |
Crystal
Structure |
Nephrite
fibrous crystalline aggregate |
Specific
Gravity |
Nephrite
normal 2.95 (2.90-3.00) |
Specific
Gravity |
Nephrite
normal 2.95 (2.90-3.00) |
Refractive
Index |
Nephrite
1.606-1.632 |
Birefringence |
Nephrite
.026 (not
usually measurable on cut stones) |
Dispersion |
None |
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Australian
Jade Chrysoprase.
Mainly
used for Jade Jewellery.
Chrysoprase
or (Australian Jade) is a bright green stone with good
clarity. It has a Mohs scale hardness of 7.0 to 7.5 and
is gaining in popularity. In my opinion because looks as
good as Jadeite from Burma (Myanmar) at a much reduced
price. OK it’s not Jadeite or Imperial Jade but the
quality is good and it looks the part for a small
fraction of the cost. When it’s is made up into fine
Jade Jewellery only experts with testing equipment could
possibly tell the difference.
Jade
Jewellery made from Jadeite is even becoming
popular in the west, certainly in the past few years. In
the past both Jadeite and Nephrite has been used to make
tools, pots and jars as well as ornaments. Nowadays
it’s value is too great for such mundane items and is
mainly used for fine Jade Jewellery and ornaments.
Jade
for the sprit and Healing
As
jade gives off a clear tone when struck, it is used for
the bells and chimes in ceremonies where it can banish
the evil influence by their sound.
It
is thought Jade is a pure and concentrated source of
Yang energy that can halt or reverse the ageing process
and even the process of death it is said according to
Taoist alchemy. Jade was said to issue a "jade
grease," or harbor a "jade tree," that
would grant everlasting life or so it was believed by
the legendary Mountain of the Immortals.
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Jade
wards off infantile diseases if placed around the neck
and not removed. It is placed in
the mouth of a corpse to protect the soul.
Necromancers used it to raise the soul. Jade bracelets
are worn to promote a long life and as a charm to
prevent eye infection. It is considered to be the
concentrated essence of love. It makes a good healing
talisman for the kidneys, urinary and digestive
problems.
Jade:
Strengthens heart, kidneys, immune system. Helps cleanse
blood. Increases longevity and fertility. Aids eye
disorders and female problems. Powerful emotional
balancer. Radiates divine, unconditional love. Clarity,
modesty, courage, justice, wisdom. Peaceful and
nurturing. Dispels negativity. Healing affinity will
correspond to particular color of stone.
Can you really do with out it?

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Where
is Jade found?
Jade, (Jadeite)
Burma
or Myanmar is the only known source of Jadeite. It comes
from an area in northern Burma (Myanmar) that is 350 km,
north of Mandalay which has it’s most northern town of
Kanis and the most southern town of Makapin lying just
north of Lake Indawgyi. It’s most westerly border is
Tawmaw or in the south Hungpa on the Uru River and to
the East the town of Lonkin. The administrative and
trading center of the district is a small town called
Hpakan.
Chinese
Jade, (Nephrite)
Alaska,
Canada, New Zealand, Siberia, United States, Taiwan
China
Jade ( Nephrite ) mines in China.
One
which happens to be in Liaoling province, where the
Hongshan culture was located.
Deposits
of jade minerals are relatively widespread and rich in
assortment. Jade comes from five known regions, "Hetian
jade" from Xinjiang province, " Xiuyan
jade" from Liaoning, "Southern jade" from
Guangdong, and "Nenyang jade" from Henan have
been well known for a long time. According to another
source jade mines are found in a source next to Beijing,
in Liaoning, Fujian, Guangxi Zhuang, and Hainan.
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Experienced
jade traders are said to be able to predict, by studying
the outside of the boulder, what the inner color will
be, but anyone who has ever seen boulders sawn open can
prove the lie in that old wives’ tale. Even for
experts, much guesswork is still involved. Before
sawing, the surface is carefully examined to select the
best place. There is no specific formula for cutting -
it all depends on individual judgement and the rough’s
features. And let’s not forget luck. In buying, say, a
five-piece lot, sometimes all are good, and sometimes
all are bad. As the great 11th-century gemmologist, al-Biruni,
put it: “God grants honour to some and disgrace to
others.”
How
do miners separate the quite occasional jade boulder
from the thousands of others they also dig up that look
so completely similar? If the inexperienced
found it, we would simply have thrown a potential
fortune straight
into the neighbour's back yard. The answer is this.
Jade boulders ring like a bell when struck with a pick.
They feel heavier than ordinary rocks, have a fibrous
texture and lack mica-like reflections. Jade also feels
slightly sticky when wet. But most importantly, the
miners look for “show points,” areas where the green
colour shows through the skin. Apparently even the miners
themselves sometimes have difficulty identifying the
look of heaven.
On
what judgment is a deal is done?
Much
of the mystery about the jade trade concerns just how a
trader judges the quality of something encased in a
rust-like oxidation skin so dense it hides all traces of
colour. Traders will often wet the surface of a boulder
to better see the colour lurking within. They also
utilize small metal plates and penlights. The plate is
placed on the surface at a likely spot and a penlight
shone through from the side furthest from the eye. This
reveals colour in the absence of glare from the light.
Traders and miners look for something they call pyat
kyet (literally ‘show points’), which are areas
where the skin is thin enough to see through. And if
there are no such show points? Good question “Next”
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A
long time ago, there was a man who had a miraculous
experience which he believed was caused by a piece of
jade in his possession. When he died, he passed his jade
on to his son. The jade was then passed from one
generation to the next with the belief that 'jade keeps
you from evil and disasters'. This is part of jade's
deep attraction to the Chinese, aside from its intrinsic
beauty, also a symbol of protection.
I
think the main reason for jade becoming more popular in
the west is because apart from it’s rare beauty and
it’s polished silky finish it has been up until now
relatively unknown other than by the Chinese communities
around the world. However my favourite colour is not
green but Lavender but most people when first introduced
to jade only think of green.
I
began taking an interest in Jade when I was looking for
a present for my girlfriend while on a business trip in
the Far East. To my astonishment she actually liked it
when I returned, which if you knew her as I do you too
would have been surprised as well. I then mentioned it
to a friend of mine Allen Dining. He was at that time a
jeweller, having like me been a few things before
including a Policeman, it raised his interest and when
he inspected the few items that I had returned with, he
asked me to bring some back for him on my next trip. I
did this and he took the lot with out quibble at the
price. Tragically he didn’t see the full profit from
his initial investment as 1 year later he died from a
massive brain tumour. If it where not for him and my ex
girlfriend I would not be doing this today.

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It
was on subsequent trips that I began to realize that
there was a demand that at that time was not being
properly satisfied. I introduced Fine Jade Jewellery
into my hometown over 2 years ago. At first only a few
people where even aware of it’s value but since then
the love affair with jade has spread the length and
breath of the British Isles.
I
introduced Fine Jade Jewellery into my home town in 1994. At first only a few people were even aware of
it’s value but since then the love affair with jade
has spread the length and breath of the British Isles
It
is different. It is something that as yet your friend
doesn’t have. The value of jade according to it’s
quality is so varied that you can buy a nice carving of
a Happy Buddha pendant for as little as $20.00 dollars
US increasing to the same thing in Imperial Jade for
thousands. My range is such that you can always find
something new. On my sourcing trips to China I am always surprised by the amount of new
items to add to my collection. This being the case
it’s terribly difficult to keep my web site up to
date. If you don’t see what you want ask anyway as I
may well have it or be able to obtain it for you.
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Chinese
Jade (Nephrite)
At some time around 2300 BC,
a large number of the major civilizations of the
world collapsed, simultaneously it seems. The Akkadian
Empire in Mesopotamia, the Old Kingdom in Egypt, the
Early Bronze Age civilization in Israel, Anatolia and
Greece, as well as the Indus Valley civilization in
India, the Hilmand civilization in Afghanistan and the
Hongshan Culture in China - the first urban
civilizations in the world - all fell into ruin at more
or less the same time. Why? It’s becoming more widely
believed that it was due to the impact of a comet. These
theories have come more to the accepted possibilities
since the impact of the commit Shoemaker-Levy 9 on
Jupiter in 1994. Other theories are volcanic and
earthquakes.
A
large amount of jade ornaments were found in the site of
the Hongshan culture which existed prior to its collapse
in about 2300BC. The jade was and still is an expensive
gemstone. In the Hongshan culture, the jade ( Nephrite)
was used for various purposes. Whether it was used as a
currency or it was used as a jewellery item, it was
believed to be more precious than gold. At the site
itself, there were several jade stones that had a
pinkish color but the source of that jade was never
found ( later these where discovered to be Jadeite).
There is no concrete evidence to where the jade stones
were brought from and that still remains a mystery as
this is not a colour that is normally associated with
Nephrite.
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In
1884, a mineralogist Heinrich Fischer wrote a paper
" On Stone Implements in Asia". In studying
Chinese stone celts and implements, he discovered a
single specimen, which he believed to be of nephrite. He
found that its edge was straight, which was attributed
to the continual sharpening of the edge which proved
that humans carved those stones. Another interesting
kind mentioned by Fischer is a group of stone celts in
the South Kensington Museum in London. " The are
said to be of jade; their mineralogical diagnosis,
however, is coffee-brown to a yellowish green, and at
least four out of every six are remarkable for being
engraved with antique Chinese characters, the names of
their former owners". With these observations
Fischer had to wonder if China had been explored
sufficiently to know whether there was a stone epoch. He
thought that those stones could have been brought from a
different place as a souvenir of their ancient homes.
However, this notion seemed to be contradictory to his
prior observation of Chinese symbols. It proves that
those stones are indigenous to China. Yet, his thought
has a valid point.
John
Anderson is considered to be the first to discover stone
implements in China. While he was in China, he saw a
stone implement on sale. Later on, he started collecting
them. The stones turned out to be of jade. By further
studies, the Anderson collections were then found to be
the productions of the Shan tribe of Yun-nan, the
earliest settlers of that region, and not of the much
later colonizing arrivals, the Chinese. However, these
stones remain of the geographic area of China.

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To
this day, no one knows exactly how the jade was brought
up and mined at that time. In some instances, they were
found lying down on the ground, some with ancient
Chinese symbols. Even, the mineralogical diagnosis was
unclear. In the 1920’s the jade stones were found to
be of two kinds. The jade stone could be of nephrite and
could be of a jadeite. A nephrite is a form of
amphibole, which is a complex hydrous silicate. A
jadeite is a gem form of pyroxene, which is related to
amphiboles, it is a sodium aluminum silicate. Both types
have colors ranging from brown to yellow to green, but
only jadeite has a pink variety.
The
Hongshan culture, which was located in Liaoning
province, had several kinds of jade ornaments. Some of
those ornaments had a pinkish appearance. It was later
found to be of jadeite. To this day, no one knows where
the Hongshan culture acquired. From this, you can come
up with two assumptions. The first assumption is that
pink jade was totally exhausted from a nearby mine, thus
leaving no trace from where it came. The second
assumption is that it came from a source not yet known
and was forgotten about 6000 years ago.
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The
history of Burma’s jade mines in the West is a brief
one. While hundreds of different reports, articles and
even books exist on the famous ruby deposits of Mogok,
only a handful of westerners have ever made the journey
to northern Burma’s remote jade mines and written down
their findings. Occidental accounts of the mines make
their first appearance in 1837. Although in 1836,
Captain Hannay obtained specimens of jadeite at Mogaung
during his visit to the Assam frontier (Hannay, 1837),
Dr. W.Griffiths (1847) was the first European to
actually visit the mines, in 1837 (Griffiths, 1847). The
following is his account, as given in Scott and Hardiman
(1900–1901):
In
1888, two years after their annexation of Upper Burma,
the British dispatched a military expedition to the jade
mines. Accompanying the troops was an Englishman,
W.Warry, whose account of the history and working of the
mines is one of the best. According to Charles
Crosthwaite (1912), Chief Commissioner of Burma for
1887–1890, Warry was the expedition’s advisor on
Chinese affairs:
He
belonged to the Chinese Consular Service, spoke Chinese
well, and understood these difficult people as well as
an Englishman can. He was on most friendly terms with
the Chinese in Burma, and could trust himself to them
without fear. (Crosthwaite, 1912, The Pacification of
Burma)
Warry’s
description of the mines was given in the Myitkyina
District Gazetteer (Hertz, 1912) and is reproduced here
in its entirety:
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The
jadestone or nephrite, has been known in China from a
period of high antiquity. It was found originally in
Khoten and other parts of Central Asia, and being of a
brilliant white colour and very costly, it was held in
high esteem as symbolical of purity in private and
official life. The green variety of the stone seems to
have been extremely rare, but not entirely unknown, for
attempts are recorded to produce its colour artificially
by burying white jade in juxtaposition with copper. The
discovery that green jade of fine quality occurred in
Northern Burma was made accidentally by a small
Yunnanese trader in the thirteenth century. The story
runs that on returning from a journey across the frontier he picked up a piece of stone to
balance the load on his mule. The stone proved to be
jade of great value and a large party went back to
procure more of it. In this errand they were
unsuccessful, nobody being able to inform them where the
stone occurred. Another
attempt, equally fruitless, was made by the Yunnan
Government in the fourteenth century to discover the
stone; all the members of the expedition, it is said,
perished by malaria, or at the hands of hostile
hill-tribes. From this time onwards, for several
centuries, no further exploration in the jade country
seems to have been undertaken by the Chinese. Small
pieces of the stone occasionally found their way across
the frontier, but the exact source of the supply
continued unknown.
The
year 1784 marks the final termination of a protracted
series of hostilities between Burma and China, and from
this time dates the opening of a regular trade between
the two countries. Adventurous bands of Chinese before
long discovered that the jade-producing districts lay on
the right bank of the Uru river, and a small but regular
supply of the stone was now conveyed every year to
Yunnan.
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Impracticable
roads, a malarious climate, and an unsettled country
prevented the expansion of the trade. Some twenty or
thirty Chinese at the most went up into the jade country
each season and a very small proportion of these ever
returned. In the Chinese temple at Amarapura is a long
list containing the names of upwards of 6,000 Chinese
traders deceased in Burma since the beginning of the
present century to whom funeral rites are yearly paid.
The large majority of these men are known to have lost
their lives in the search for jade. The roll includes
only the names of well-known and substantial traders.
Could the number of smaller traders and adventurers who
perished in the same enterprise be ascertained, the list
would be swelled to many times its present size.
The
earliest route followed by the jade traders led from
Momein to Kunyung Lien and Chansi on the Yunnan
frontier. Here the Kachin Hills were entered and a
week’s journey over exceedingly difficult
mountain-tracks brought the travellers to Kachins-Yimma
on the Irrawaddy, a place which appears to be some
distance above Talawgyi. The river being crossed here,
the parties made their way as best they could towards
Hsimu (Seikmo) [Sate Mu] in the valley of the Uru river,
which they usually reached after a toilsome march of
some ten days. The Hsimu quarries were first discovered
in 1790; they yielded a very brilliant jade, pieces of
which are said to have been sometimes exchanged at
Momein for their weight in silver.
In
1798 the Chinese traders at Ava, with the assistance of
the Burmese Government, opened up a new route to the
mines, namely from Ava to Menrua (Monywa), thence up the
Chindwin and Uru rivers to Serua (Seywa), from which
place the mines then worked were distant some two
days’ journey by land. The trade in jade now developed
rapidly, and Serua, being the depot, rose into
considerable importance. After some years, however, this
route became insecure owing to the hostility of certain
Kachin tribes who commenced to waylay and rob caravans;
and the original Kutung (Kuyung) route being for similar
reasons unavailable, another new overland road was
adopted, namely from Katha via Mawlu, Mohnyin and
Loastun (Lawsun) to Endaw (Indaw); thence three days to
the mines.
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The
direct road into China via Bhamo had been known for
centuries, but fear of the Kachins appears to have
deterred traders from making a regular use of it. Even
cotton from Lower Burma was constantly sent up by river
past Bhamo to Tsenbo (Sinbo) or to Talaw, and was
conveyed thence by mules into Yunnan. In 1805 the first
consignments of jade were sent down the Mogaung river to
Tsenbo (Sinbo), where they were given into the charge of
the cotton caravans; and from 1807 for some years a
favourite route for jade was from the mines by way of
Myuhung (old Mogaung), Tapaw, and Hokat to Talaw on the
Irrawaddy, whence the stone travelled overland with the
cotton caravans via Sima, Tachai (the frontier between
Burma and outlying tribes dependent on China) and Sanda
(Santa) (the frontier of China proper) to Momein (Tengyueh).
This route is still used to a small extent. It is under
the protection of a powerful Chinese family at Tachai
called Chao, to whom travellers pay a fixed sum for safe
conduct.
Early
in the present century the Burmese Kings seem to have
become aware of the importance of the jade trade and of
the revenue which it might be made to yield them. In
1806 a Burmese Collectorate was established at the site
of what is now the town of Mogaung, and a guard of some
thirty Burmese troops under a Military Officer was
regularly stationed at the mines during the working
season to protect the trade and to maintain order. This
force was always accompanied by the Amatgyi, or
hereditary noble, of the Mogaung district, whose special
duty was to control the hill-tribes. The principal
Kachin Sawbwas [princes] were also in the habit of
meeting the Burmese official in Mogaung and escorting
him up to the mines, where they provided him with
entertainment during his stay.
Mogaung
now became the headquarters of the jade trade in Burma.
Comparatively few Chinese actually went up to the mines;
the Kachins themselves brought down most of the stone to
Shuitunchun, a sandbank opposite Mogaung, where a large
bazaar was held during the season. The Burmese Collector
imposed no tax upon the stone until it was ready to
leave Mogaung, when he levied an ad valorem duty of 33
per cent, and issued a permit which was examined by his
deputy at Tapaw, one day’s journey from Mogaung by
river. After this the stone passed freely anywhere in
Burma without further charge or inspection. The value of
jade was determined for purposes of taxation by an
official appraiser. This officer, however, by private
arrangement with the traders and the Collector,
estimated all stone about one-third of its real value.
The actual duty paid was therefore small and business
proceeded smoothly, cases of friction between the
traders and the customs officers being of very rare
occurrence. All payments were made in bar silver. The
metal used was at first fairly pure, but it was soon
debased by a large admixture of lead. Rupees did not
come into general use until 1874.
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Besides
the duty leviable at Mogaung, the stone had to bear
certain charges, authorized and unauthorized, at the
mines and Namiakyaukseik (Nanyaseik), one day’s
journey from the mines:—(1) The Burmese officer at the
mines imposed a monthly tax of 1 tael (about 4 annas) on
everybody who came to trade; from this charge Burmans
and actual workers in the mines were exempt; (2) a
further sum of 2.5 taels (about 10 annas) was charged
for a pass which was issued for each load of jade
leaving the mines for Namiakyaukseik; (3) at
Namiakyaukseik 4 taels (about a rupee) was paid on the
arrival of every load to an agent of the Mogaung
Collector permanently stationed there. Of these charges
the Chinese regarded the first and third as legitimate,
and the second as an unauthorized gratuity to the
subordinates of the Mines Officer. All the above charges
seem to have varied slightly from year to year.
The
Kachins levied no toll on stones at the mines or
proceeding down to Mogaung. Their rights appear to have
been well understood and respected. They were regarded
as the absolute owners of all the stone produced in
their country. This ownership was never directly called
in question by the King of Burma. As I shall point out
below, the furthest length he went in this direction was
to exclude all competition during the years when he
bought jade from the Kachins. The Kachins on their side
acknowledged the sovereignty of the King of Burma by
admitting his officers to mines; by allowing them to
purchase a certain quantity of stone for the Kings’
use at a nominal price; and by acquiescing in certain
charges imposed by those officers and in certain
interferences at the mines, whereby the price of
their stone was injuriously affected. I shall advert
below to the rights of Kachin Sawbwas over their own
people engaged in the jade-mining.
Under
the system just described, the jade trade continued to
flourish for many years. The period of its greatest
prosperity is comprised within the years 1831–40,
during which time at least 800 Chinese and 600 Shans
were annually engaged in business or labour at the
mines. All the stone was sent by one of the
abovementioned routes to Yunnanfu, at this time the
great emporium of the trade. The business there was
mainly in the hands of Cantonese merchants, who bought
the rough stone in large quantities and carried it back
to be cut and polished at Canton. In 1841 war broke out
between Great Britain and China. Hostilities first
commenced at Canton and the effect on the jade trade was
not long in making itself felt. Cantonese merchants no
longer came to buy stone at Yunnanfu. Stocks accumulated
and Yunnan traders ceased to go up to the mines. The
Kachins, suffering from this stoppage of business, made
urgent representations to the Burmese at Mogaung; and in
1842 a Burmese Officer proceeded from Mogaung to Momein
to enquire if any offence had been given to Chinese
traders that they did not come as usual to the mines.
There was a partial revival of the trade for a few years
commencing with 1847, but the disturbed state of
Southern China, consequent upon the Taiping rebellion of
1850 prevented a complete recovery; and with the
outbreak of the Panthay rebellion in 1857 the roads
leading to Yunnanfu were blocked and all business in
jade came to a standstill for several years.
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During
the early part of the period just passed in review the
Chinese estimate that the average amount of duty
collected each year did not exceed Rs. 6,000, the output
of jade being small and the official appraisers venal.
About the year 1836, when the trade was most
flourishing, Rs. 21,000 was the probable amount of the
annual collections. After 1840, the duty fell to
Rs.3,000 or less, and then it dwindled away to nothing.
The above estimates are probably below the mark, as the
Chinese would for obvious reasons, be inclined to
understate the real amount.
The
year 1861 witnessed a great improvement in the jade
trade. From that date until now, the bulk of the stone
has been carried by sea to Canton. In 1861 the first
Cantonese merchants [merchant] arrived in Mandalay. He
bought up all the old stocks of jade and conveyed them
to China by sea, realising a large fortune on this
single venture. His example was quickly followed by
other Cantonese, and once more the trade in jade revived
and numerous Yunnanese went up to the mines. The
principal quarries were now at Sanka, a place recently
visited by the Mogaung column. Stone had been discovered
there many years before, but had been pronounced poor in
quality and scarcely worth the troubles of working. Now,
however, upon a second trial, it proved to be equal or
superior to that from the earlier mines, the colour
having, as the Kachins alleged, matured and deepened in
the interval. The yearly duty collected at this time
probably amounted to at least Rs.27,000.
Hitherto
the collection of the duty had been in the hands of an
official who had paid a very high price at Ava for his
appointment and who was in the habit of remitting to the
capital only as much as he thought fit—usually about
one-fifth of the actual receipt. In 1866 the tax was
farmed out for the first time. The price obtained was
Rs.60,000 for a three-years’ lease. At the expiration
of this term the King, dissatisfied with the amount of
the jade revenue, determined to buy all the stone from
the Kachins himself, and he appointed a high official to
act as his agent at the mines. For a whole season
Chinese and other dealers in jade were excluded from the
mines; as the stone was dug up, it was purchased by the
King’s agent, carried to Mogaung and there retailed to
the traders. This arrangement was of course highly
unsatisfactory to the Kachins, who first protested
against the exclusion of other purchasers and then,
finding their protest of no avail, resorted to the much
more effectual method of curtailing the supply of stone
and producing only pieces of indifferent quality. For
this reason the King’s experiment was a failure and
the total revenue he secured did not equal the proceeds
derived from the sale of the monopoly in the preceding
year. The Chinese explain the failure on other grounds.
The experiment, they say, was doomed from the outset
owing to the inherent impropriety of a sovereign
descending into the arena of trade and taking the bread
out of the mouths of his own subjects.
Return
To Index
During
the years 1870, 1871 and 1872, the King obtained an
annual remittance of Rs.12,000 from the Collector at
Mogaung on account of the jade duty. In the following
year new deposits of fine jade were discovered at
Mantiemho, and the King again determined to become the
sole purchaser from the Kachins. On this occasion, too,
the revenue he realized fell far below the average of
former years.
In
1874 the old system was reverted to and the collection
amounted to Rs.60,000. Once more in 1875, the King
undertook to buy the stone himself from the Kachins and
again the experiment failed, though not so badly as on
the two previous attempts. About this time the Iku
quarry was discovered and, the output being very good,
the right of collecting the duty was sold in 1876 for
three years for the sum of Rs.60,000. In 1880, Wu Chi,
the son of a Canton Chinaman by a Burmese mother,
obtained a three years’ lease of the monopoly at the
rate of Rs.50,000 a year. In the second year of his term
Tomo (Tawmaw) quarries were opened and he made an
immense fortune.
In
the autumn of 1883, Mogaung was sacked by the Kachins,
and during the ensuing winter and spring there was no
trade in jade. In June 1884, order having been partially
restored, a Chinese syndicate represented by Li Te Su
took the monopoly for three years agreeing to pay
Rs.10,000 the first year, Rs.15,000 the second, and
Rs.20,000 the third.
Return
To Index
The
up-country was still unsettled and the lessees, by
arrangement with the traders, were permitted to collect
duty at Bhamo instead of, as herebefore, at Mogaung.
During the first two years of their term, owing to the
disturbances connected with the adventurer Hsiao Chin (Hawsaing)
and the British occupation of Upper Burma they collected
little or no duty; but the proceeds of the third year
left them with a margin of Rs.20,000 over and above
their total expenses for the three years.
The
tax was then farmed out by the British Government to
Loenpin, the present lessee. Matters between him and the
jade merchants did not proceed smoothly. Loenpin from
the first was very strict in exacting his rights. He
taxed every piece of jade at Bhamo and Mandalay that did
not bear plain marks of the stamp of his predecessor,
and he declined, contrary to the practice of all his
predecessors, to make allowance in cases where the stamp
had been obliterated through frequent washing of the
stone or by long storage underground. He also refused to
admit free of duty certain small re-imports of stone
from Momein about which previous lessees had made no
difficulty. So far Loenpin was acting within strict
legal rights. His action in other respects was more
questionable. No duty had ever been collected at Mogaung
until the stone was reported
ready to leave the place, when duty was paid and
a pass issued. Stone might thus remain at Mogaung for
years and change hands many times without being
subjected to any charge. Loenpin, however, insisted that
all jade should pay duty to him within five days from
its arrival at Mogaung. This new regulation bore very
hardly upon the small traders in jade. For example, such
a man might have been lucky enough to secure a stone
worth a thousand rupees. On his arrival at Mogaung
Loenpin would say to him: ‘I value your stone at five
hundred rupees; pay me the duty (Rs.166) within five
days.’ In many cases the owner would not be able to
raise this sum at so short a notice; and if he failed to
do so, Loenpin claimed to buy the stone at his own
valuation, that is to say, for just what it was really
worth.
In
addition to rendering himself obnosious [obnoxious] to
all traders in jade Loenpin had roused the apprehension
of the Kachin owners of the mines. He had made no secret
from the first of his intention, not merely to collect
the duty, but to get the actual management of the mines
into his own hands. When the Chinese and Kachins, by way
of reprisals, stopped the supply of jade for some weeks,
he openly announced that this did not matter, for the
English were shortly coming to put him into armed
possession of the mines which he then intended to work
with imported labour from Singapore.
Return
To Index
The
unpopularity which Loenpin had earned among all classes
interested in the jade trade culminated last December in
the cowardly outrage made upon him at Mogaung, which
resulted in his death. The jade-producing country may be
roughly described as the large district lying between
the 25th and 26th parallels of latitude, and enclosed
east and west by the Uru and Chindwin rivers
respectively. Small quantities of jade have at one time
or another been discovered over nearly the whole of this
tract, but the stone occurs in greatest abundance at
places near to the right bank of the Uru and
considerable quantities have been found in the bed of
that stream. The names of the quarries most celebrated
in times past for the excellence of their output are
Hsimu [Sate Mu], Masa, Mopang and Tamukan [near Haungpa].
All these places appear to be within the boundaries
given above and to lie at no great distance from one
another. They have all ceased to yield jade except in
minute quantities, and they are now termed the ‘old
mines,’ Sanka being the latest name added to this
list.
Jade
also occurs at few isolated points outside the area just
described. At Mawhooh, one days’
march on the road from Mohnyin to Katha, the
Chinese have recently reopened an old quarry the output
of which in former years was very rich. And the most
celebrated, perhaps, of all jade deposits appears to lie
at a distance of several days’ journey from the
principal mining districts. The place is called by the
Chinese ‘Nantelung,’ meaning the ‘difficult of
access,’ or ‘the unapproachable place.’ It is
described as [a] large cliff overhanging the Chindwin,
the country being passed through being very malarious
and infested with wild animals and savage tribes. The
stone can only be obtained by swarming up the face of
the cliff with the aids of ropes and dislodging small
portions with a hammer. The water underneath is deep and
the stone is thrown down into the boats specially
strengthened by a double platform of bamboo erected
across the deck. Many pieces are lost in the river and
cannot be recovered except by expert divers. As no
Chinese have ventured to go up to Nantelung for at least
twenty years, the foregoing particulars may be
exaggerated or incorrected in some respects, but there
seems to be no doubt of the existence in that region of
a deposit of jade possessing remarkable brilliance and
value. I have myself at Peking seen specimens of jade
said to come from Nantelung and I have heard
descriptions of the place very similar to that just
given.
Return
To Index
Sanka
was the first point in the jade country visited by the
Mogaung column. It was reached after a march of some
seventy miles from Mogaung in a direction almost exactly
north-west. Up to Sakaw, one-half of the distance, the
way led for the most part through dense jungle, with a
few pleasing breaks of comparatively open forest land.
At Sakaw the Endaw river was crossed, and the path
onwards became hilly and in some places exceedingly
difficult on account of the narrowness of the track and
the steep gradients. The country traversed was more open
and some magnificent stretches of forest land were
passed through. Sanka is situated on the right bank of
the Uru just opposite its junction with the Nansant
stream. Some twenty years ago Sanka was celebrated for
its output of fine jade, but the supply has long been
exhausted, and the place is now almost deserted. I spent
the greater part of a day in visiting the excavations of
former years. Thousands of pits had been dug along the
sides of the low hills and in the small intervening
valleys. The diameter of the pits rarely exceeded ten or
twelve feet at the mouth, and the average depth was
about twelve feet. At two of these quarries work was
still proceeding. A few Kachins were engaged in lazily
bailing out water and detaching small pieces of stone
which they brought up one after another to the brow of
the pit, and, after a moment’s inspection, pronounced
to be worthless. In answer to my inquiry if they ever
found a good piece, they replied that this event
happened sometimes once in three months, sometimes once
in six. The discovery of a good piece, however,
recompensed them for many months of labour. The pits
they were working belonged to a small Kachin
Sawbwa, who gave them nothing but their food unless they
discovered jade, when they obtained a fair share of the
price realized. They told me that at many other old
mines a few men were still at work who thought
themselves lucky if, in the course of a year, they
brought one or two pieces to light, and they added that
the bed of the Uru is still diligently searched with
much the same disproportionate results.
Sanka
is the last of the ‘old mines.’ The ‘new mines’
have produced immense quantities of stone, but none
which approaches in quality that yielded by the quarries
of former years. It will be
convenient here to indicate briefly by points of
difference between the old stone and the new. The value
of jade is determined mainly by the colour, which should
be a particular shade of dark green. The colour however,
is by no means everything; semi-transparency,
brilliancy, and hardness are also essential. Stone which
satisfies these four conditions is very rare. The last
three qualities were possessed to perfection by a large
proportion of the old stone, but the dark-green colour
was rare and often absent altogether. The new stone, on
the other hand, possess abundant colour, but is
defective in the other three respects, being as a rule
opaque, dull and brittle in composition. These natural
defects are aggravated by the injurious methods employed
in quarrying the new stone. A peculiarity which gave
high value to all stone found at the old mines was that
[it] occurred in the form of moderate size round lumps,
having often the appearance of water-worn boulders, and
small enough to be detached and carried away without
undergoing any rough process of cleavages on the spot.
At the new mines the stone occurs in immense blocks
which cannot be quarried out by any tools possessed by
the Kachins, but have to be broken up by the application
of heat, a process which, without doubt, tends to make
the stone more brittle and chalk-like.
Return
To Index
These
defects were not fully realized the first year that the
new mines were opened. The output of stone was large and
the competition keen. Hitherto only men of some capital
had been able to engage
regularly in the trade. It had been impossible to do
more than guess at the value of any
old stone, for each piece was complete in itself
and was usually protected by a thick outer capsule which
effectually concealed the colour within. All pieces
therefore fetched a high price, as any piece might on
cutting prove to be of immense value. But with the
opening of the new mines, stone could not be bought in
fragments of any shape and size, and it was possible by
the processes of washing and holding in a strong light
to determine with comparative exactitude the amount and
nature of the colour. The trade was thus brought within
the means of a large number of men who had not before
been in a position to take part in it. There was
accordingly a rush for the new mines in 1881, and the
speculation in jade reached a height not attained
before. Large fortunes were made by those who had the
good luck to dispose of their stone before its defects
were discovered. In the second year there was a heavy
fall in prices, which involved the ruin of more than one
of the largest jade merchants.
Return
To Index
W.
Griffiths, 1847
Journals
of Travels in Assam, Burma,
Bootan, Afghanistan, and the Neighbouring Countries.
On
9th February [1888] the column marched from Sanka to
Tomo (Tawmaw), the largest of the new mines, all of
which, namely, Pangmo, Iku, Martiemmo and Mienmo, are
situated in the near
neighbourhood. The road was broad, very steep in
places, and after the first few miles it continually
ascended. It led for the most part through grand forest
scenery, the kanyin, the gangaw, and the cotton wood
being the prevailing trees. Here and there narrow belts
of bamboo jungle were passed through, but the
undergrowth was as a rule scanty. At the end of seven
and a half miles from Sanka we emerged upon a broad
plateau, some hundreds of acres in extant, the whole of
which had been cleared for mining purposes. The
excavations, which were in some cases of considerable
depth, presented the general appearance of a series of
limestone quarries at home. The largest quarry measured
about 50 yards in length by 40 broad and 20 deep. The
bottom was flooded to a depth of a few feet. It is the
joint property of 120 Kachins in equal shares, one of
which is held by Kansi Nawng, the principal Sawbwa of
the district. No work was going on, and we saw no
valuable pieces of jade, all such having probably been
hidden before our arrival; but round the edge of the
pits and along the paths were lying tons upon tons of
stone valuable in China, but not sufficiently valuable
to repay the cost of transport and the charges by the
way. There was a mob of several hundred people at Tomo [Tawmaw]
when we arrived. Among them I discovered only three
Chinese, who expressed much surprise at our having been
allowed to come up; the rest were Shans and Kachins.
Return
To Index
The
Kachins of the jade country are described by the Chinese
as very different in disposition to the cognate tribes
dwelling between Bhamo and Yunnan. In outward
appearance, however, the resemblance was complete; and
the language, Father Cadeaux informs me, is identical.
But, unlike their cousins of the Bhamo frontier, the
Kachins at the jade mines are naturally inclined to be
peaceable and honest in their dealings with strangers.
They treat all traders with great kindness and
consideration; and although sums of money, amounting to
several lakhs [one lakh
= 100,000], are often sent up from Mogaung
without a guard of any sort, robbery, or attempted
robbery, is a thing unknown. They have the reputation of
being the most superstitious of all the Kachin tribes.
The remoteness of their country, the wildness of the
scenery, the peculiar nature of the climate, healthful
to them but deadly to strangers, the frequent
earthquakes and violent atmospheric disturbances, seem
to have inspired in them a more devout belief in the
unseen powers and a readier disposition to consult them
on the most trivial subjects. In important matters, such
as the discovery or the opening of a jade mine, their
action is entirely determined by superstitious
considerations. In their search for stone they are
guided by indications furnished by burning bamboos; when
it is discovered, favourable omens are anxiously awaited
before the discovery is announced to the Kachin
community. A meeting is then convened by the chief
Sawbwa, and again sacrifice and other methods of
divination are resorted to in order to ascertain if the
mine should be worked at once or be allowed to remain
undisturbed for a period of years until the colour—such
is the Kachin belief—is sufficiently matured. If the
indications are favourable to the immediate opening of
the mine, the land at and around the outcropping stone
is marked
out by ropes into small plots a few feet square, which
are then apportioned among all the Kachins present. No
Kachin belonging to the same family is refused a share,
no matter how far away he may live.
The
ground thus parcelled out, traders are invited to the
mine, and after an elaborate ceremonial is
held at the opening of each successive season. This year
the sacrifices were on an unusually
large scale, an abundant output being desired in
order to meet expected orders on behalf of the
Emperor of China, who is to be married shortly.
On the occasion of the Emperor Tungchih’s
marriage in 1872, it is said that a sum amounting
to four lakhs of rupees was expended at Canton in buying
jade for use at the ceremony, and a great impulse was
thereby given to the jade trade in Burma.
Return
To Index
The
Kachins have always claimed the exclusive right of
digging at the mines. They have, however, from time to
time allowed Shans to assist them, and in the early days
Chinese were permitted to work certain quarries
temporarily abandoned by the Kachins. The Chinese,
however, found the labour severe and the results
unsatisfactory, and they have now for many years
contented themselves with buying stone brought to the
surface by Kachins.
The
season for jade operations begins in November and lasts
until May, when the unhealthiness of the climate [re:
malaria] compels all traders to leave and the flooding
of the mines suspends further operations on the part of
the Kachins.
This
flooding of the deepest and most productive quarries is
the greatest difficulty with which the Kachins
have to contend, and they have spent much labour and
money in devising expedients, with indifferent success,
to meet it. There were at the time of our visit
elaborate bamboo structures over some of the largest
quarries for the purpose of bailing out the water. When
the floor of the pit can be kept dry a few hours—and
this is as a rule only possible in February and
March—immense fires are lighted at the base of the
stone. A careful watch must then be kept, in a
tremendous heat, in order to detect the first signs of
splitting. When these occur the Kachins immediately
attack the stone with pickaxes and hammers, or detach
portions by hauling on leavers inserted in the crack.
All this must be done when the stone is at its highest
temperature, and the Kachins protect themselves from the
fierce heat by fastening layers of plantain leaves round
the exposed parts of their persons. The labour is
described as severe in the extreme and such as only a
Kachin would undertake for any consideration. The heat
is insupportable, even for onlookers at the top of the
mine, and the mortality among the actual workers is very
considerable each season. The Chinese take a malicious
pleasure in reminding the Kachins that in the early days
when quarrying was easy the right of digging was
jealously withheld from outsiders; and they assure them
that under present conditions they need not be
apprehensive of an infringement of their monopoly.
Return
To Index
The
stone is purchased at the mines by Chinese traders. All
payments are made in rupees. An expert, or middleman, is
nearly always employed to settle the price. These
middlemen, who are without exception Burmese or Burmese-Shans,
have from early times been indispensable to the
transaction of business at the mines; they charge the
purchaser five per cent on the purchase-money. The Kansi
Sawbwa occasionally takes a similar commission for
settling prices between the Kachins and Chinese; and he
receives in addition very valuable presents from traders
desirous of conciliating his goodwill and securing the
first offer of stone he may be possessed of.
The
jade having been purchased is carried by Shan and Kachin
coolies to Namiakyaukseik
(Nanyaseik), one long day’s journey from Tomo.
The cost of carriage is at present from Rs.5 to Rs.6 a
load of 25 viss. Stones too large to be carried by one
man pay at a much higher rate, ten viss being reckoned
as a load in such cases, and all the men engaged being
paid at this rate. From Namiakyaukseik the stone
proceeds by dug-outs down a small creek which flows into
the Endaw river some three miles below Sakaw, and thence
the river is followed to Mogaung. The transport of a
load (25 viss) from Namiakyakseik to Mogaung probably
costs about half-a-rupee.
Return
To Index
Besides
the cost of carriage the stone has at present to pay
certain charges levied by Kachins at the mines and on
the way down to Mogaung. In Burmese times it was the
custom of any Kachin, the output of whose quarry was
particularly good, to invite the chief Sawbwa to come
and select a piece for himself. Beyond this the Sawbwa
claimed no rights over the jade found in his country,
except, of course, over such as occurred on his own
private property. Now, however, since the withdrawal of
the Burmese Mines Officer, the Kansi Sawbwa has assumed
and enlarged some of the rights formerly exercised by
that official. At present he imposes a tax of Rs.2-8-0
on every load of jade that leaves his country. This
charge was levied three years ago, and being an
innovation it formed the subject of a protest from the
Chinese, on whose behalf the ex-Myook of Mogaung wrote
to the Kansi Sawbwa asking him to remit it. The Sawbwa
having read the letter cut it to pieces with his dà
[knife] to show the contempt in which he held the
remonstrance. The payment of this tax, however, is not
rigidly enforced; traders who can plead poverty, or who
are intimate with the Sawbwa or his agents, easily
obtain reduction or exemption.
At
Namiakyaukseik the stone is subjected to a further
charge of Re.1 a load by the local Kachin Sawbwa, who
also imposes a tax of Re.1 on every boat coming up the
creek; and within the last
few months a family of Kachins at Pentu (Puntu),
between Kamein (Kamaing) and Mogaung, have barricaded
the river at a narrow point where they take toll of
passing boats. Some jade is sent down the Uru and
Chindwin rivers on rafts, and the amount would be larger
were it not for rapids which render the navigation
dangerous. At present little or no stone from the new
mines [Tawmaw] follows this route, which is used only
for such jade as can still be extracted from old mines
in the lower valley of the Uru.
Some
jade, again, is carried direct to China, evading duty at
Mogaung. The proportion of the
stone thus smuggled increased considerably last
year in consequence of the unfortunate relations between
the traders and the jade lessee. It probably amounted to
one-fourth of the total output; in ordinary years it is
perhaps one-sixth. But the export by this route can
never be very large, because (1) the demand for uncut
stone in Yunnan is now comparatively small, and (2) the
direct overland transport from the mines to Momien
costs, in ordinary cases, more than the transport to
Momien via Bhamo plus the duty at Mogaung. The present
rate of overland carriage from Talawgyi to Momien is
Rs.40 for a load of 25 viss. The same amount of jade can
be sent from Bhamo to Momien for less than Rs.10. It is
certain, however, that some stone will always be
smuggled in this way until there is a customs station at
the mines. Small pieces of jade possessing high relative
value will find this route convenient; and the several
hundred Shans who visit Tomo each season and return to
China direct will not be prevented from taking back with
them as much as they can conveniently carry.
Return
To Index
The
Tomo quarries have now been worked for seven years and
the stone is by no means exhausted, although the labour
of extracting it from the deeper pits is barely repaid
by the price realized. In the immediate neighbourhood of
Tomo, the jade-supply is beginning to fail. Last year,
out of forty-four excavations only three yielded good
stone; and I now hear that during the last month
thirty-seven new pits have been dug, the jade from which
has in every instance proved valueless. This
unsatisfactory result is attributed to the recent visit
of the foreign troops. But it is confidently asserted
that many new deposits of stone are known to the Kachins
and will be disclosed in due season. The supply has not
failed for upwards of a century, although no one
particular mine has ever been profitably worked for
longer than a few consecutive years.
The demand for jade is universal throughout
China, and the price of the best stone shows no tendency
to fall. Burma is practically the only source of the
supply, and there seems no reason to think that the
supply is likely to fall short of the demand.
Considering the large area over which the jadestone has
at one time or another been discovered, the
impracticable nature of the country, covered for the
most part with thick jungle, and the rough character of
the prospecting, which consists merely in examining
large and obvious outcropping stones, it is probable
that the jade hitherto discovered bears a very small
proportion to that still concealed. It is likely,
therefore, that in the jade country our Government
possess a source of revenue capable of considerable
development. Putting out of sight the probability of
future discoveries of jade, there is no doubt that the
revenue derived from the present mines might be much
improved if free access could be obtained to the
country. The introduction of European appliances, which
should supersede the present injurious method of working
the quarries, would add considerable value of the
output, a good part of which is now calcined by the
action of the heat. And the smuggling of stone overland
to China would at the same time be effectually
prevented.
Return
To Index
But
a strong opposition from the Kachins must be expected to
any innovation proposed by our government. The wealth
and influence of the Kansi Sawbwa have greatly increased
since the opening of the Tomo [Tawmaw] quarries. Even
before the British annexation of Upper Burma he had
begun to show some impatience at the yearly visits of
the Burmese Mines official to his country; and he had
ceased to escort that officer from Mogaung and to
provide him with entertainment during his stay in the
hills. For the last six years he has been entirely free
from surveillance and control, and he has come, not
unnaturally, to regard himself as an independent
chieftain. It is improbable that he will admit a British
garrison to his country without an attempt at
resistance. It is true that he made no objection to the
recent visit of the Mogaung column. But it was doubtful
up to the last moment whether he would take a friendly
or a hostile line, and it was well known that a number
of the assembled Chiefs were in favour of resisting the
progress of the column. Probably the assurance conveyed
to the Sawbwa that no interference with his rights was
intended, and that the column would return immediately
after visiting the mines, had most weight in influencing
his decision. However this may be, I am convinced that
any future attempt made without the free previous
consent of the Kachins to establish a Military or Police
post at the mines or to exercise any interference with
existing arrangements there, will need to be supported
by the presence of a considerable force.
W.Warry,
1888
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